TAMU Commerce Online MBA Programs Essay Example

TAMU Commerce Online MBA Programs Essay TAMU Commerce online MBA programs offer unique studies in order to meet all requirements and challenging needs of any professional out there. Its online executive MBA program, a.k.a. eMBA, enables the students pursue a degree without making them change their personal or professional life. This university wants to offer a program that features great learning experience for all students. They tend to make the knowledge with great value not only for the student himself, but for their closely associated organizations. Its online executive MBA program is a cohort based with minimum required size of 12. All students who want to apply to this program are entering a small group of students and they remain with it through the whole program. Its program is taken in 6 terms which are presented below: Term 1 – eMBA 595 – Executives research methods; eMBA 500 – Managerial Economics Term 2 – eMBA 530 – Entrepreneurship and innovation; eMBA 525 – Executive leadership Term 3 – eMBA 510 – Economic forecasting; eMBA 550 – Valued marketing Term 4 – eMBA 540 – Executive accounting; eMBA 545 – Organizational transformation Term 5 – eMBA 535 – Executives’ decision makings; eMBA 515 – Financial risk management Term 6 – eMBA 560 – Position and process of the Executives; eMBA 555 – Executive coaching This university offers 4 start dates when you can enroll for this program. For this year the start dates are almost over, but for 2014 are going like this:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From January 6 to March 16 We will write a custom essay sample on TAMU Commerce Online MBA Programs specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on TAMU Commerce Online MBA Programs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on TAMU Commerce Online MBA Programs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From March 24 to June 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From June 9 to August 17   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From August 25 to November 2 Program Details The length of the program is 12 courses or 36 hours. The courses are taken in more classes. The class length is 10 weeks and they can begin every 11 weeks. Only one winter break divides them and takes place between spring and fall terms. In order to be awarded with admission into TAMU Commerce online MBA program, you are required with transcripts. These transcripts need to derive from internationally recognized foreign institution or accredited institution in the US. It requires additional GMAT or GRE scores which can be eliminated if you have a UGPA 3.0 score. Minimum score isn’t required, but keep on mind that those with higher scores have better chance. Average GMAT or GRE scores can vary. Alongside these requirements, the TAMU Commerce online MBA program requires work experience, as well. If you are a professional and you want to attend this program, you’ll have to show 3 years of experience in your work field. This online eMBA is designed for those who seek upgrading their careers and advanced degree. As additional requirements, you’ll also need your resume, application letter and a letter of recommendation. Faculty, degree, transfer credits and tuition This faculty has been highly qualified over the years and it’s an AACSB accredited school. Its members continue with their education along the teaching. They focus on researches into their professional fields in order to maintain their qualification. This research is represented by many business and government organizations that bring this kind of expertise to solve some situation or problems. The degree is considered to be a practitioner executive MBA degree. The courses of this program can’t be transferred out or into the online eMBA program. The tuition of this program is $30,000 for taking the full-time program or there is an option paying $2,499 for every course.

Gender Roles Throughout History Essays

Gender Roles Throughout History Essays Gender Roles Throughout History Essay Gender Roles Throughout History Essay Part one Gender roles of diverse cultures have differed immensely throughout history. The evolution of gender roles first began in the Paleolithic Age and then began to transform with the transformation of the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age. Women in Mesopotamia, India, Greece, China, and Rome were not treated as equals and viewed as inferior to men. Cultures like Egypt and Persia had similar laws for women and treated them with more respect out of any of the other cultures. The Paleolithic Age was responsible for the introductions of many vital aspects of our world today such as, technology, agriculture, and gender roles. The Paleolithic culture was based on a hunter and gatherer society, which had a great influence on the gender roles of males and females. For the most part, the men were responsible for the hunting, mainly due to their physical build. Genetically speaking, men are normally larger in size, stronger, and more aggressive in comparison to women. Despite the large size and strength differences, both males and females were treated with equality. Women contributed to the Paleolithic society by being responsible for the gathering of edible plants and berries. Although gathering plants and berries is considered to be less dangerous and fairly easy when being compared to hunting, gathering was considered to be one of the most important contributions to Paleolithic society. When men went off to hunt, there was no guarantee that they would always be able to bring back enough meat, if any, to feed the community. The plants and berries gathered by the women were responsible for feeding the community daily, especially when the men were unsuccessful in their hunting trip. : Without the roles of both the women and men, the community would not have been able to survive. The Neolithic Age was the transformation and progression from the Paleolithic Age lifestyle. The transition of the different era’s influenced the gender roles of men and women, changing them based on the development of their new lifestyle. The main gender role difference between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age was male domination. Although men became much more dominant of the two genders, women were still treated with respect. Because of the size and strength advantage men had over women, men were responsible for most of the hard manual labor, while women were given roles more suited for their weaker and nurturing nature. Men started to realize that instead of hunting and killing animals, they should capture, domesticate, and breed the animals because it would be more beneficial to the community in the long run and provide a more stable lifestyle. The women also realized the importance of stability and collected seeds for an assortment of plants and fruits so they could invest their time in farming plants instead of gathering them. Because of the gathering role and responsibility women played in the past in the Paleolithic Age, women were very familiar with plants. Women understood how plants grew and the factors and environment needed in order to be successful in growing them, which is why women were responsible for the start of plant farming. Since communities did not have to relocate so often based on animal migration, and men and women did not have to spend several tiring hours searching for animals to hunt or food to gather, people had more time on their hands. This extra time allowed women to concentrate more on looking after their families and children, cooking, cleaning, and sewing. This led to men virtually being responsible for all the difficult labor. Unlike in the Paleolithic Age where men and women were equal and relied on each other for survival, men no longer needed to depend on women as much. Most of the responsibility for survival was placed on the men which is what ultimately led to their dominance. The religions and laws developed in Mesopotamia prevented women from asserting control in society. Elite classes such as priests and warriors manipulated religious beliefs to say male Gods were more valuable and dominant in comparison to female Gods. This led to justifying male domination over females in the Mesopotamian society. Men were in control and held the power, allowing them to abuse their wives, sell them into slavery to pay off debts, and partake in consensual sexual relations even if married, while women were drowned to death as punishment for committing adultery. In Mesopotamia, women were mostly responsible for tending to the children and household. Women did not have the power to make life decisions for themselves and instead, relied on the men in their family to make those decisions for them. In Egypt, although men were the dominant gender in society, women were treated with great respect, which led to a very stable and successful society. The Egyptians believed that the goal of life was happiness and viewed home and family life as the main source of it. Egyptian law basically treated women as equals for the most part. Women were allowed to hold positions of power, own property, own slaves, receive an education, and even borrow money. Although Pharaohs were normally men, certain circumstances allowed for women to hold the same title. The Egyptians believed that marriage and family were very important aspects in life. They believed that unconditional love and kindness were vital in a marriage and thought that husband and wife should always treat each other with respect. In regards to family, unlike many cultures that viewed children as another mouth to feed or another worker, Egyptians truly enjoyed their children and experienced much joy in their families. In India, public figures and important positions were given to men. Although women did not have any public authority or receive any formal education, they were still considered to be important to society by having much influence when it came to family life and were supposed to be treated with respect from their family and husband. Sometimes it was difficult for women to take of the household due to their young age. Beginning as a child, women were taught that they were supposed to devote their lives to men. Very young child brides were quite common in India but ceremonies would not take place until the child had gone through puberty. Also, according to the Laws of Manu, women were allowed to inherit property. Women could â€Å"influence affairs within their families but enjoyed no public authority† (Meridians, page 98). The Laws of Manu state, â€Å"deities delight in places where women are revered, but where women are not revered all rites are fruitless,† (Meridians, pg 78). The Code of Hammurabi does not give a lot of freedom to women. Also, the Code is very strict when it comes to marriage. The Code allowes fathers and brothers to arrange marriages and punishes cheating wives by sentencing them to death. Different from the Code of Hammurabi, the Laws of Manu stresses the importance of husbands revering their wives and keeping them happy (Meridians, P. 78). China was a patriarchal society where men were considered to be the leader of the household. Although women were not normally seen as public figures, women were considered to be very valuable in the home and family. In the beginning, women were actually considered to be extremely important because the female side passed power and the line of succession. However, there was one woman, Fu Hao, who stood out from all the rest during Shang times. Hao was in charge of her own estate and oversaw the sacrificial ceremonies that most men oversaw (Bentley Ziegler, pg 124). In Perisa, family and clans were considered to be very important. The Persian culture was considered much more laid back in comparison to many others because classes were free and people were given the freedom to practice any religion, pursue any profession, and even borrow money to start their own business. Unlike most cultures, women were able to enjoy social and legal freedoms and were a very active part of society. Women were treated with equality and respect. Females were permitted to take part in religious ceremonies and occasionally even serve as the priest. Their were no restrictions on relationships or marriage- young people in relationships were told to practice honesty and loyalty, and to always be faithful and share each others happiness (Notes on Iran, P. 1) . When selecting a husband, women were instructed to be wise but free to choose who to marry on their own (Notes on Iran, P. 1). Many women took on jobs of weaving textiles and were given portions of grain, wine, beer, and occasionally meat from the imperial and temple workshops who employed them (Traditions Encounters, P. 170). If the King passed away and the price was too young to rule, the kings wife was allowed to take the throne. Pourandokht was the first Persian Queen and was thought of throughout history as kind hearted and wise (Notes on Iran, P. 1). Persians tended to have a close knit family and parents were encouraged to teach their children right and wrong and the importance of equality. In Athens, Greece, women were seen as inferior to men, not very intelligent, and thought of to have strong emotions. Women had guardians who were their closet male relative or husband. The guardian system was set up because Athenian philosophers, other than Plato, thought that women needed to be protected from themselves and society so they could not cause any damage to themselves or others (Women in the Ancient World, P. 2). Women were not allowed to own any property other than clothing, jewelry, and slaves, and we only allowed to purchase inexpensive items. In order for a woman to gain citizenship, she had to marry a male citizen. Fathers were responsible for arranging marriages between their young daughters and older men who were normally in their twenties. Like Indian culture, the girls married after they went through puberty. The job of a wife was to have children and take care of their house. Wives were never supposed to leave their homes unless to attend special events or funerals. If a married woman was seen outside of her home without it being any of the above occasions, people considered her to be a prostitute, slave, or so poor that she had no choice but to work (Women in the Ancient World, P. 2). Women from Sparta were different from much of Greece because they were able to own and inherit land. Spartan women were known to be bold and run the household, but were not supposed to be seen as too dominant over their husbands in public. The main purpose of marriage for people of Greece was not for love, but for the purpose of breeding (Women in the Ancient World, P. ). In Rome, women were constantly under the authority of men. Roman law insisted that women had to obey their fathers until they married, then in which case, had to obey their husbands. Even if a woman was widowed, she was still supposed to have some kind of male supervision of her finances (Women in the Ancient World, Rome). Roman men greatly valued marriage and treated their wives with great respe ct. Although women were never allowed to hold office, several men listened to the advice of their wives when not in public. Women did not enjoy working and only did so if they were lower class and had to (Women in the Ancient World-Rome). The Paleolithic and Neolithic differed in gender roles due to the change in their lifestyles. In the Paleolithic Age, women and men were considered equals because they had to rely on each other equally in order to survive. The transition to the Neolithic Age caused men to dominant women since most of the responsibility for survival was placed on the shoulders of the men. Men no longer needed to rely on females as much as they had to in the Paleolithic Age. Mesopotamian culture treated women with very little respect. Men were allowed to abuse their wives, sell them into slavery, and even commit adultery. If a Mesopotamian woman ever committed adultery, she would be sentenced to death. The Egyptian culture and Persian culture are most comparable to one another in the sense that they embraced family, love and marriage and treated women with immense respect and equality. In India, ever since women were children, they were always taught that they were supposed to devote their lives to their husbands. Indian women had arranged marriages and married after they went through puberty, much like the Athens in Greece. In China, although women were normally not seen as public figures, they were considered to be very important in home and family life. Women of Athens, Greece, led very strict lives and were considered to be very weak minded and unintelligent. Like the Indian culture, they had arranged marriages and married mainly to breed offspring. Spartan women different from Athenian women in the sense they Spartan women were very as very bold and not weak minded at all. In Rome, women were under the constant authority of men. However, despite this, Roman men took the advice of their wives when given in private, and were dominant when in the public eye. Barry. Role of Women in Ancient Persia. Notes on Iran. Web. 21 Oct. 2009. Bentley J. H. Ziegler H. F. (2008). Traditions Encounters: A global perspective on the past . New York:McGraw-Hill[pic] Meridians: Sources in World History. (2009). Pearson Custom Publishing[pic] Thompson, James C. Women in the Ancient World. Women in the Ancient World. Nov. 2005. Web. 22 Oct. 2009.

Entrepreneur profile brief Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Entrepreneur profile brief - Essay Example In addition to working towards economic development, this entrepreneur seems to be also very conscious of the environment and with this in mind; he has helped the people of Ranquitte to develop respect towards the environment and to attempt to restore it as much as possible to its pristine state. Durant, while conducting his activities in Haiti also went there as a missionary in an attempt to evangelize as he helped the community get back to its feet. As the head of the mission program in Ranquitte, Durant worked closely with the local people of the community, not only helping them gain materially through the coffee program, but also spiritually through teaching them of the goodness of God. His ability to take on multiple roles in an attempt to improve the lives of the community is highly commendable because it allowed him to help its people get a well-rounded growth (George Fox University, 2009). The story of Tom Durant is highly inspirational because it allows an individual to get a glimpse at the manner in which, despite the massive secularization as well as the high rates of poverty that plague the world, there are still individuals within it who are willing to help others overcome these problems. Durant’s story is one that is full of hope for the people of Haiti and the rest of the world because it shows them that no matter what the odds are in their life, they can still manage to overcome them and become successful. Through his helping the people of Ranquitte to gain self-sufficiency through the marketing and sale of their coffee, Durant, through his entrepreneurship skills, has made it possible for this product to be recognized for the good qualities that it has. Moreover, Durant states that it is because of his involvement in Haiti that he has gained further spiritual growth because the mission program that he initiated has worked beyond his wildest dreams; imp roving the lives of the

Problems Associated of a Common Currency as Illustrated by the Current Essay

Problems Associated of a Common Currency as Illustrated by the Current EU Crisis - Essay Example Similarly, it has been a key achievement in that about 330 million European Union populations utilize it as their currency and benefit from its advantages. Although the use of a common currency may be beneficial to member states, it may have some various shortcomings. For instance, experts agree that there are various challenges associated with the use of a unified currency – as Eurozone member states are learning. Even though, the first few years of using a common currency went impressively, breaks have started appearing on the Eurozone as the global crisis intensifies, (Gabrisch and Ru?diger, 45). The original objective of the Euro was to enhance the overall economic productivity of the European countries, as fragile, minority nations had changed to be increasingly competitive. On the contrary, fragile nation enjoyed increased purchasing supremacy without the need of producing extensive products and services. Similarly, overall growth of productivity reduced in Europe from a bout 1.7 yearly prior to the euro to half the cost since. Additionally, euro suffers from the disintegrated political authority that controls its economy. Each member state can issue it independent debt; the euro is beneficial and useful in about 16 diverse bond markets, (Horngren, Srikant and Madhav 63). Similarly, each economy designs its own expenditure policies and tax; some nations now experience debts greater than their GDP. Similarly, while the counties have been exempted from the currency fluctuations impacts, euro states now experience a diverse – sometimes extremely painful – effect from the global investors’ whims. Borrowing costs in increasingly obligated nations such as Spain and Portugal are increasingly advanced than of Germany that has accrued the enormous pile of savings. In addition, these nations experience diverse painful choices that they did not have to address in the past when they could devaluate their domestic currency. For instance, Ita ly experiences some stark options, which continue to mess up with the economic growth of the country. Italy contemplates on whether to boost productivity by reducing wages, or leave the euro and devaluate national debts and design its local currency, (Grauwe 89). However, pursuing such decisions would make the situation extremely difficult for Italy to borrow. Some euro nations with extensive debts experience downward spirals as these debts deepen costs leading to increased tax or low spending. Reducing future costs of borrowing implies increasing productivity – via either layoffs or reduction of wage or both. None of these options is likely to receive much support by the day of election. A common currency enhances reduced and steady inflation, stability in the rate of exchange and strong public finance between members of European Union. For instance, some Eurozone nations have reported experiencing financial crisis because of shared currency. Additionally, experts agree that Euro was designed on the basis on a false premise that a common currency would result to unification of economic performance among members. For instance, Greece would resemble Germany and Portugal would resemble Finland. In fact, the creation of Euro has resulted to intensification of the gap between developed and developing nations as

The most significant factors that contributed society Essay Example for Free

The most significant factors that contributed society Essay A.One of the most significant that contributed to the expansion of the United States was the California Gold Rush that started in 1848. In 1848, word of a bounty of gold to be found in California caught the attention of many easterners. They had dreams of becoming rich. So in the year 1849, many men left their families and homes for the California wilds to make their fortune. They figured that a year away from home was worth the riches they would return with. These men were referred to as â€Å"forty-niners† as they left in the year 1849. As hundreds of gold seekers flooded California, the gold eventually ran out. Thousands of people made the journey west for gold. Many stayed seeing the potential of the new western land. This also gave way to farming the fertile land of California. Farmers came and stayed to sustain the new population and eventual state. This helped make the state what it is today. It is still a place where thousands of people live trying to eek out a living or become rich. see more:among the historical changes that stimulated the development of sociology as a discipline was Another contributor to the expansion of the United States was the Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889. In one day the city of Guthrie exploded into a population of ten thousand residents. The government opened land in the state as a first come first served basis. People lined up to stake their claim on land at the border. At 12 noon, the barriers were lifted and one of the most chaotic events in history unfolded. Hundreds of people on foot, wagon and horseback bolted for their unclaimed property. Within hours, almost all of the plotted out townships were taken. This expansion contributed greatly to the population moving west and economically gave a boost to the new â€Å"frontier†. It was one of the biggest and fastest western moves in history. B.Mesopotamia was one of the most significant factors that contributed to the development of society today. Mesopotamians were a highly intelligent people. Their society revolved around a temple with a priest acting on behalf of their God. Later these priests were more like kings but still were considered a mouthpiece for God. The Mesopotamians wrote down all of their laws on tablets. No one, not even the king, was above the law. This  way of governing trickled down through societies to today. The metal workers developed a way of using furnaces to heat their metal works to make them stronger. This act of smelting was passed throughout other areas and countries. Smelting made the metal much stronger. The land of Mesopotamia was fertile. The location of the two rivers led to irrigation of farmland, while the hospitable climate made farming an easy prospect. This led the people to change from hunters and gatherers to a more sophisticated society rather quickly. This leads me to believ e that agriculture was the most significant factor in the development of their society as a whole. The Mesopotamians began to export their goods they invented. Axes for war and building, pottery wheels, and glass are just a few of the exported goods. They were thought to have also invented the wheel. The wheel made everyday life so much easier for their people and others as this invention was spread around. The use of a divided day and night into two 12 hour blocks was made by the Mesopotamioans to make trade easier with other cities. They then divided their weeks into seven days. The Jewish people then made this seven day calendar into Sundays as a day of rest and worship which then morphed into our modern day weekend. Currency was also developed by the Mesopotamians to make trade easier. The worth of a cow, pottery and a slave, was all written down to make trade fare. Mesopotamia contribute to many economic cultures by starting this way of fare trade. Mesopotamia and Egypt used cultural exchange through war, trade and migration to diffuse their two cultures. With these two rivers of Tigris and Euphrates so easily accessable for both cultures, trade was easily obtained while workers were needed to help with the progression of cultural advancement. Trade and warfare were huge factors in diffusion of these two cultures. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt began to depend on the other for various trades of produce, animals, products, and people. References The Oregon Trail, 2011, Boettcher/Trinklein Inc., www.america101.us/trail/Oregontrail.html The Rush to Oklahoma, 1889 Harpers Weekly, William Willard Howard, www.library.cornell.edu Walker, Ann-Marie, The California Gold Rush Led to Development and Expansion of the United States, August 2011, voice.yahoo.com Annenberg Learner, Video on Demand, The Western Tradition, Mesopotamia, Guisepi, Robert, Egypt and Mesopotamia Compared, The Origins of Civilizations, history-world.org

Strategies to Prevent Cyber Crime

Strategies to Prevent Cyber Crime Andrew Rayner Cyber Crime: Preventing the Horrific Crimes on the Internet In today’s society, there are many aspects of crime committed on a regular basis. Civilians take advantage of people using online resources such as a fraudulent website requiring credit card information to get a free monthly trial. Other venues that may contain a potential for cyber crimes are online chatting websites, full of predators or websites requiring a downloadable program that contains a hacking virus. Sadly, there are many cases of cyber crime populating the internet. Acts of cyber crimes are considered violent acts like any other. Every day, citizens are constantly losing money and being victimized due to a variety fraudulent activities. Cyber crime, including fraud, identity theft, stalking, and hacking, is a growing problem which can be prevented by taking the proper precautions. The biggest case of cyber crimes are cases of fraud. â€Å"Online fraud comes in many forms. It ranges from viruses that attack computers with the goal of retrieving personal information, to email schemes that lure victims into wiring money to fraudulent sources† (What is â€Å"online fraud†). When browsing the internet, people will stumble upon websites offering a free trial. Some of these websites are real, but many are fake. Real examples can include ones like Netflix, Hulu, or Amazon Prime. A fake website, such as one offering too great of a deal often contains attempts of fraud, to gain access to credit card information. Another way of committing fraud is by sending fake emails to Craigslist advertisers make the victim think that he/she is getting a great deal. This type of fraud has to do with shipping. Criminals respond to Craigslist advertisements pretending to be a company such as PayPal, saying that the money is being held until the victim replies to the email with a valid tracking number. When the victims gives the requested information, the criminal ignores the victim and takes their money. Protection against offenders requires cautionary steps. â€Å"Perpetrators act as hackers who intercept personal information while victims are online, either through website entry or through phony [emails] in which they disguise themselves as legitimate firms attracting victims to do business with them† (Dyke 3). Keeping personal information secure on the internet is vital for any person’s safety. Never give out credit card information online to any company unless the company is verified. One way of checking for authenticity is to see if the websites has a verification certificate. These certificates cant be given to any website unless it is approved to take vital information. This is a safe way of making sure credit card information is not given to anyone who might steal it. Although they don’t take credit cards, when dealing on Craigslist, never ship anything, for any reason, as this is a scam; instead, the deal should be handled in person. There is no safe way on the internet to ship any item between private parties, so it is best to avoid anyone wanting to work with shipping or money shipments. Anyone can use a credit card number online without a tangible card. Keeping credit card details safe is important when dealing online. Only give credit card information to a website if that the website is certified to take a card. Almost any credit card will have bank protection when purchasing virtual goods, but it is important to make sure card information is not given to an unknown or untrusted website. Many scam websites will have a fake certification seal to verify that the website is real, the seal should link to a valid certification location. A form of cyber crime involving personal information is identity theft. When browsing the internet, people often come across ads that supposedly allow the user to win an iPad or other expensive device when completing a survey. This is a scam and is never a valid offer. These surveys require the user to input personal information such as an address, email, phone number, and name. This is a common method to steal identities. People may also come across a practice of identity theft such as Free-Credit-Score websites. These websites will ask for every bit of personal information including a social security number. A common victim pool is false advertising on Craigslist such as a fake job offer. Social engineers are predators who prey on victims to get personal information resulting in a scam, or even worse, identity theft. Do not deal with anyone on Craigslist when trying to find a friend to chat with. They often are cyber thieves wanting every bit of information to use to their advantage. To prevent identity theft, never give personal information to any website or any person unless that website can is trusted. Some common websites that are trustable are PayPal, Amazon, Squirll, and verified bank websites. These sites all have approved certifications seals. Normally this is checkable by looking to the left of the URL (Website Address) for a Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) installation, which is indicated by a lock icon. Having stalkers outside of the web is dangerous, but because of advancements in technology, the internet is full of cyber stalkers as well. â€Å"A cyberstalker only needs access to a computer and a modem. Due to the enormous amount of personal information available through the internet, a cyberstalker can easily locate private information about a potential victim with a few mouse clicks or key stokes† (Cyberstalking). Many websites on the internet offer instant messaging. A few examples are Omegle, Craigslist, and teen chat rooms. These rooms are normally a hangout for predators. The predators will act as someone they arent to try and convince victims to like them, resulting in giving them personal details. Chatting sites are extremely dangerous, and it is imperative that chat rooms are avoided to prevent a perpetrator finding you outside of the internet. Social sites such as Facebook, Myspace, and Twitter are also websites that require caution when using. Creating an account on these websites require no identification possibly resulting in the predator disguising as someone they arent such as a relative or friend. Never give information to anyone online in a chatting program such as Skype or instant messaging system. Putting information online having to do with personal information is never a good idea even if it is Facebook or other websites such as Google+. Cyber stalkers are normally found on chat websites and social media websites. It is important to always exercise caution for protection when speaking to anyone online, no matter the situation because of the dangers. â€Å"Cyberstalking is just as frightening and potentially dangerous as a stalker at the victim’s front door† (Cyberstalking 2). The biggest form of cyber crime is hacking for malicious reasons or personal gain. â€Å"There are some career criminals who steal by electronic means. This small group poses a large problem for society, but it’s not a new one. Thieves are thieves† (Harvey 2). There are thousands of people on the internet trying to hack for gain on a daily basis. This is done through key loggers, Remote Administration Tools (R.A.T.S), and other types of malicious software. These are normally found within an executable file (.exe). These viruses will infect computers and try to steal information such as logins to websites, credit card information in files, or any type of person information. Many kids and some adults fall for this scam on a daily basis. When trying to find a premium code for a service such as Xbox Live or Spotify, people will come across a multitude of websites that give them instruction to complete a survey to unlock a premium code. These are not real. Do not download anything from a survey. Surveys will ask for permission to download a program to unlock the file which supposedly contains the free premium code for such service. Normally these programs are prone to contain an infected type of file, forcing advertisements and malicious software onto a computer. The last major type of virus is a phony antivirus program. When attempting to download a program to help fix an infected computer, normally the user results in having more remotely downloaded viruses. Instead of stealing information or logging computers, these viruses are typically used to force people to purchase the antivirus software to make the annoying virus go away. These are also used to lock ones computer and make him or her pay to have it unlocked. These viruses normally are the worst kind because they are so hard to remove from an infected machine, and scare the unknowing victim. Trustworthy programs are normally anything from trusted developers, such as Microsoft or Adobe. However, there are plenty of trustworthy ones on the internet. To determine if the websites/programs are trustworthy, check the SSL on the website from which the program is being downloaded, which means it is certified. If ever unsure about a program, websites such as Virus Total can scan the program for infections. These websites scan files for anything malicious. If any sort of malicious viruses are found, it will notify the user before the computer decides to run the file. Most of the time anything having to do with a bot, survey, free cracked program contains a virus. There is no reason to download any program having to do with a free item, which will completely prevent someone from being infected. These crimes are a few of the dangers on the internet. To provide full safety, never give personal information to dubious-looking website, download programs that are not trustworthy, speak to anybody on the internet unless positive of their identity, and never for any reason, try to get something for free that costs. These things are the most common type of cyber crimes people see on a daily basis. Although the internet is a great source for making money in legal ways, it can also be used for plenty of malicious black market money scams. It is imperative to carefully browse the internet when downloading programs, and talking to people online. Works Cited Cyberstalking. Marshall University. Marshall University, n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2014. Dyke, Van, and Albrecht W. Identity Theft. U of NEBRASKA–LINCOLN. U of NEBRASKA–LINCOLN, n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2014. Harvey, Brian.Computer Hacking and Ethics. Ed. Paul Goodman, P.G. Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences. U of California, Berkeley, n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2014. What is â€Å"online fraud†? National Crime Victim Law Institute. Lewis Clark, 27 July 2010. Web. 24 Jan. 2014.

Information Systems and Organization Essay

This paper, and the special issue, address relationships between information systems and changes in the organization of modern enterprise, both within and across firms. The emerging organizational paradigm involves complementary changes in multiple dimensions. The revolution in information systems merits special attention as both cause and effect of the organizational transformation. This can be illustrated by considering two key variables: the location of information and the location of decision rights in organizations. Depending on the costs of information transmission and processing, either the â€Å"MIS solution† of transferring information, or the â€Å"organizational redesign solution† of moving decision rights, can be an effective approach toward achieving the necessary collocation of information and decision rights. When information systems change radically, one cannot expect the optimal organizational structure to be unaffected. Considering the interplay among information, incentives and decision rights in a unified fashion leads to new insights and a better organizational planning. The papers in the special issue address different facets of this interaction. Despite significant progress, our understanding of the economic role of information systems in organizations remains in its infancy. We conclude that successful design of modern enterprise will require further narrowing  of the historic gap between research in information systems and research in economics. The organization of work is in the midst of transformation. In many industries, mass production by large, vertically-integrated, hierarchically-organized firms is giving way to more flexible forms of both internal organization and industrial structure. Work is increasingly accomplished through networks of smaller, more focused enterprises. The resulting structure of loosely coupled sub-organizations blurs the boundaries of both firms and industries. A canonical case in point is the computer industry. In the past, the industry was dominated by large, vertically-integrated firms such as IBM and Digital Equipment which created products and services throughout the value chain — from the microprocessor level all the way up to the provision of solutions. The vertical structure is now being replaced by a series of layers, each of which is, in effect, a separate industry. Value is generated by ever-changing coalitions, where each member of a coalition specializes in its area of core competence and leverages it through the use of tactical or strategic partnerships. Internally, team structures are replacing the traditional hierarchical form, and the Silicon Valley model of internal organization is emerging as a clear winner.3 Internal incentives are increasingly based on performance, and this further blurs the differences between inter- and intra-firm contracts. In sum, modern enterprise is undergoing major restructuring. In this short paper we briefly discuss the newly emerging organizational paradigms and their relationship to the prevailing trends in information technology (IT). We argue that IT is an important driver of this transformation. Finally, we place the studies selected for this special issue of the Journal of Organizational Computing within this context. 1. Emerging Organizational Paradigms: Symptoms and Causes At the turn of the century, Frederick Taylor sought to put the nascent wisdom  for successful business organization on a scientific basis. His work guided a generation of managers towards success in meshing their organizations with the technologies, markets, labor and general environment of the era. By the 1920s, Henry Ford had applied the Taylorist approach with a vengeance and soon dominated the automobile market, driving dozens of competitors under. Ironically, these same principles are almost diametrically opposed to the prevailing wisdom of the 1990s. For example, consider the following guideline from The Science of Management [1] It is necessary in any activity to have a complete knowledge of what is to be done and to prepare instructions†¦ the laborer has only to follow instructions. He need not stop to think. The current emphasis on â€Å"empowerment†, â€Å"learning organizations†, and even â€Å"thriving on chaos† stands in sharp contrast to Meyers’ advice (cf. [2] , [3] ). Similar contrast can be found with many, if not most, of the other principles that lead to success even as late as the 1960s. Consider, for example, the growing calls for downsizing (vs. economies of scale), focus (vs. conglomerates), total quality (vs. cost leadership), project teams (vs. functional departments), supplier partnerships (vs. maximizing bargaining power), networked organization (vs. clear firm boundaries); performance-based pay (vs. fixed pay), and local autonomy (vs. rigid hierarchy). Milgrom and Roberts [4] make the point that the different characteristics of modern manufacturing, an important example of the emerging organizational paradigm, are often highly complementary. This complementarity, coupled with the natural tendency to change organizational attributes one at a time, makes the transition from one paradigm to another particularly difficult. Strong complementarity implies that in order to be successful, change must be implemented simultaneously along a number of related dimensions. Organizations that adopt only one or two key components of the new organizational paradigm may fail simply by virtue of this complementarity. For instance, Jaikumar’s [5] study of 95 US and Japanese companies found that the majority of US companies had failed to achieve productivity  increases despite switching to flexible manufacturing technology. The reason was that they had preserved dozens of manufacturing practices such as long production runs and high work-in-process inventory levels, which complemented the old technology but kept the new technology from fulfilling its potential. Thus, the transition from the old structure to the new one is overwhelmingly complex. The switch would be easier if we apply design guided by theory instead of piecemeal evolution. There are many possible explanations for the change in the prevailing wisdom regarding organizational design. For instance, it is common to justify calls for radical change with reference to heightened competitive pressures: although firms that applied the old principles were among the most successful competitors of their day, presumably the nature of competition has changed in some way. Others suggest that consumer tastes have changed, making customized items more appealing than they once were. While historians would argue that the taste for mass marketed items was itself something that had to be developed in the early days of mass production, increased wealth or social stratification may make this more difficult today. It can also be argued that some of the new principles were as applicable fifty years ago as they are today, but that they simply had not yet been discovered. Although the enablers of the current organizational transformation are undoubtedly numerous and far from mutually independent, we would like to single one out for special attention: the rise in IT. Brynjolfsson [6, p.6] argues that IT is an appropriate candidate for explaining these changes for three reasons: First, compared to other explanations, the advances in information technology have a particularly reasonable claim to being both novel and exogenous. Many of the fundamental technological breakthroughs that enable today’s vast information infrastructure were made less than a generation ago and were driven more by progress in physics and engineering than business demand. Second, the growth in information technology investment is of a large enough magnitude to be economically significant †¦ the result has been what is commonly referred to as the â€Å"information explosion†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Third, there is a  sound basis for expecting an association between the costs of technologies that manage information and the organization of economic activity. The firm and the market have each been frequently modeled as primarily information processing institutions (see Galbraith [7] and Hayek [8] , respectively). Miller [9] foresaw the key features of the new paradigm as a natural outcome of the information era and the associated â€Å"economy of choice†: The new technologies will allow managers to handle more functions and widen their span of control. Fewer levels of management hierarchy will be required, enabling companies to flatten the pyramid of today’s management structure. The new information technologies allow decentralization of decision-making without loss of management awareness; thus employees at all levels can be encouraged to be more creative and intrapreneurial. The key responsibility of the CEO will be leadership; to capture the light or energies of the organization — like a lens — and focus them on the key strategic objectives. The new organizational paradigm is indeed intertwined with the structure of an organization’s information systems. Under the old paradigm, the firm was governed by a relatively rigid functional structure. This separation into distinct and well-defined organizational units economizes on the information and communications requirements across functional units and reduces cost and complexity. There is a tradeoff, however: the old structure is less flexible, less responsive and ultimately results in lower quality. In our view, the growing use of IT and the trend towards networking and client-server computing are both a cause and an effect of the organizational transition. Lowering the costs of horizontal communications, facilitating teamwork, enabling flexible manufacturing and providing information support for time management and quality control are key enablers on the supply side. It is equally clear that the new organizational paradigm demands new information systems: nothing can be more devastating for cross-functional teamwork than a rigid information system that inhibits cross-functional information flows. We can unify these perspectives by noting that the structure of the organization’s information system is a key element of  organizational transformation. Changes in IT change the nature of organizations just as changes in organizational structure drive the development of new technologies. 2. Information Systems, Economics and Organizational Structure Jensen and Meckling [10] provide a useful framework for studying the complementarities between information systems, incentive structures and decision rights in organizations. In their framework, the structure of an organization is specified by three key elements: (i) The allocation of decision rights (i.e., who is responsible for what actions/decisions); (ii) the incentive system, which defines how decision makers are to be rewarded (or penalized) for the decisions they make; and (iii) a monitoring and measurement scheme used to evaluate these actions and their outcomes. According to Jensen and Meckling, informational variables are key to the structure of organizations because the quality of decisions is determined by the quality of information available to the decision maker. The co-location of information and decision rights enables the decision maker to make optimal decisions. The implementation of this co-location depends on the nature of the pertinent information. Jensen and Meckling distinguish between â€Å"specific knowledge† which is localized, difficult to represent and transfer, and depends on idiosyncratic circumstances, and â€Å"general knowledge† which can be easily summarized, communicated and shared by decision makers. Now, there are two ways to bring information and decision rights together: (i) â€Å"The MIS solution†: transfer the information required for the decision to the decision maker, using the organization’s (possibly non-automated) information systems; or (ii) â€Å"the organizational redesign solution†: redesign the organizational structure so that the decision making authority is where the pertinent information is. By definition, general knowledge which is useful for a decision calls for the â€Å"MIS solution† because it can be transferred at low cost. In contrast, when specific knowledge plays a key role in a decision, the best solution calls for restructuring decision  rights so as to provide the decision authority to the one who possesses or has access to the pertinent information (since the transfer of specific knowledge is too costly).4 Jensen and Meckling thus represent the structure of organizations as an efficient response to the structure of their information costs. But then, a change in information costs must induce a change in organizational structure. In particular, IT has changed the costs of processing and transferring certain types of information (e.g. quantitative data), but has done little for other types (e.g. implicit knowledge or skills). IT changes the structure of organizations by facilitating certain information flows as well as by turning knowledge that used to be specific into general knowledge. By developing a taxonomy of information types and identifying the differential impacts of new technologies on their transferability and importance, we can take a significant step towards applying the simple insight that information and authority should be co-located [11] . Intra-organizational networks and workgroup computing facilities reduce the information costs of teamwork and hence make it a more efficient solution to the organizational design problem. Client-server computing technology lowers cross-functional (as well as geographic) barriers. IT (when applied properly) streamlines the types of information that used to be the raison d’etre of middle management — quantitative control information — and turns it into general knowledge that can be readily transmitted to, and processed by, people other than those who originally gathered the data. A reduction in the number of management layers and the thinning out of middle management ranks is the predictable result. Similar considerations apply to enterprises that cross firm boundaries. As a simple example, consider the organization of trading activities [12, 13, 14] . Traditionally, trading took place on the floor of an exchange, which was the locus of numerous pieces of specific knowledge, ranging from the hand signals indicating bids and offers to buy and sell a security to traders’ facial expressions and the â€Å"atmosphere† on the floor of the exchange. Under that structure, much of the information pertinent to trading is specific and  localized to the floor. Thus, when an investor instructs her broker to sell 1,000 shares of a given stock, the broker transmits the order to the floor of the exchange and only the floor broker attempts to provide â€Å"best execution†. The decision rights (here, for the trading decisions) are naturally delegated to the decision maker who has the pertinent specific knowledge, and since that knowledge resides on the floor of the exchange, the floor broker is best suited to have the decision rights. Technology, and in particular â€Å"screen-based† systems, turns much of the specific knowledge on the floor (i.e., bids and offers) into general knowledge. This shifts decision rights up from the floor to the brokers’ screens. The inevitable result is the decline of the trading floor and the increased importance of brokers’ trading rooms. The demise of the trading floor in exchanges that turned to screen-based trading (such as London and Paris) is a natural outcome of the shift in the locus of knowledge. More generally, markets — in particular, electronic markets –transform specific knowledge into general knowledge [15] . Ironically, even as IT has sped up many links of the information processing chain and vastly increased the amount of information available to any one decision-maker, it has also led to the phenomenon of â€Å"information overload†. This can perhaps best be understood by a generalization of the Jensen and Meckling framework to include finite human information processing capacity. As more information moves from the â€Å"specific† category to the â€Å"general† category, the limiting factor becomes not what information is available but rather a matter of finding the human information processing capacity needed to attend to and process the information. Computers appear to have exacerbated the surfeit of information relative to processing capacity, perhaps because the greatest advances have occurred in the processing and storage of structured data, which is generally a complement, not a substitute, for human information processing. As computer and communications components increase their speed, the human bottleneck in the information processing chain becomes ever more apparent. Information overload, when interpreted in light of this framework, can provide an explanation for the increased autonomy and pay-for-performance  that characterize a number of descriptions of the â€Å"new managerial work† (cf. [6] ). Economizing on information costs means that more decision rights are delegated to line managers who possess the idiosyncratic, specific knowledge necessary to accomplish their tasks. Shifting responsibility from the overburdened top of the hierarchy to line personnel not only reduces the information processing load at the top of the hierarchy, but also cuts down unnecessary communications up and down the hierarchy. This blurs the traditional distinction between â€Å"conceptualization† and â€Å"execution† and broadens the scope of decision rights delegated to lower level managers. By the Jensen-Meckling [10] framework, any such shift in decision authority (and in the associated routing of information) must also be accompanied by a change in the structure of incentives. Disseminating information more broadly is ever easier with IT, allowing line workers to take into account information that goes well beyond the formerly-narrow definitions of their job. Meanwhile, providing the right incentives for the newly â€Å"empowered† work force is an equally crucial element of the current reorganization of work. Agency theory predicts that performance-based â€Å"pay† is necessary when decision rights are decentralized (otherwise, the agents may be induced to act in ways that are inconsistent with overall organizational goals). It therefore follows that incentive-based compensation is appropriate for better-informed workers [16].5 Thus, the confluence of better-informed workers, an empowered workforce and more incentive-based pay is consistent with our thesis that IT is a key driver of the new organizational paradigm. Furthermore, the theory of incomplete contracts suggests that the analysis can be extended to include interorganizational changes such as increased reliance on outsourcing and â€Å"networks† of other firms for key components [17] . Here again the shift can be explained in incentive terms: one ultimate incentive is ownership, so entrepreneurs are likely to be more innovative and aggressive than the same individuals working as â€Å"division† managers. Both within and across organizations, then, changes in information systems are accompanied by changes in incentives and in the organization of work. 3. The Special Issue The papers in this special issue attest to the role of information systems in the structure of modern enterprise and the blurring of the differences between inter- and intra-firm transactions. Starting from the firm’s level, Barron’s paper studies how a firm determines its internal organization and how IT affects this determination. Barron considers a traditional firm, with well-defined boundaries that are endogenously determined by considering flexibility and scope of control. Ching, Holsapple and Whinston broaden the scope of the enterprise to the â€Å"network organization† — a construct obtained by tying together a number of firms that cooperate through a well-defined communication mechanism. Specifically, they use a bidding protocol to manage the relationship between suppliers and producers. Beath and Ang examine another form of inter-firm cooperation, the relational contract, in the context of software-development outsourcing. They show how relational contracts embody a relationship that can be characterized as a network consisting of two organizations. Whang studies a more subtle form of networking — information sharing between buyers and suppliers. Bakos and Brynjolfsson examine the impact of incentives and information costs on the nature of buyer-supplier relationships. They show that committing to a partnership with a small number of suppliers can be an optimal strategy for a buyer because it will maximize the suppliers’ incentives for non-contractible investments such as information sharing, innovation or quality. The papers thus present a spectrum ranging from a study of the boundaries of the traditional firm through different forms of networking to explicit buyer-supplier relationships. A common theme is the organization of work so as to reduce overall information costs not only within an organization but across them as well. The surviving enterprise is often (though not always) the one that attempts to reduce information costs while capitalizing on the comparative advantage of the participating organizations. This calls for â€Å"opportunistic cooperation† that benefits the members of the network for as long as they cooperate. IT reduces the costs of such cooperation by  facilitating communication and increasing the flexibility of the participating organizations. Using the Jensen-Meckling terminology, different network participants can make more effective use of their specific knowledge when the costs of transferring and processing general knowledge are reduced. Further, technology enables the development of markets that, by their very nature, transform specific knowledge into general knowledge. Thus, the bidding and communications protocols proposed by Ching, Holsapple and Whinston in their paper â€Å"Modeling Network Organizations† effectively transform the specific knowledge inherent in the production technology of the competing suppliers into general knowledge that encompasses not only prices but also their reputations. From this perspective, IT is key to the development of network organizations. In his paper â€Å"Impacts of Information Technology on Organizational Size and Shape: Control and Flexibility Effects†, Barron builds a stylized quantitative model to study the impact of IT on the structure of organizations. Examining flexibility and scope of control, he identifies sixteen different cases with different patterns of the actual causality between IT and firm structure. Barron shows that simplistic statements regarding the impact of IT are not as straightforward as one might imagine due to the interaction of size, scope and flexibility. His results suggest that the impact of IT is rather complex, and that further specification is necessary prior to making predictions on the impact of IT on organizational size or shape. â€Å"Hierarchical Elements in Software Contracts† by Beath and Ang focuses on the contractual structure of outsourced software development. This is an interesting example of the new organizational paradigm because of the key role of information systems in any organization. Effective software development hinges on cooperation, communication and joint management which are at the heart of the new organizational paradigm. Beath and Ang examine the mechanisms used to govern outsourcing projects as specified in their outsourcing contracts. They suggest that the relational contract, which converts an arms-length transaction into a joint project with governance and resolution procedures that resemble those used by firms internally, is an  effective way to accomplish this. Thus, while Ching, Holsapple and Whinston view bidding and explicit reputation formation as the alphabet of the network organization, Beath and Ang view actual contract clauses as the key linguistic constructs. The paper shows how the structure of the contract is driven by the attributes of the project as well as those of the parties to the transaction. In â€Å"Analysis of Economic Incentives for Inter-Organizational Information Sharing†, Whang addresses the question of information sharing in non-cooperative buyer-supplier settings. Whang studies this question for two different models. He first shows that due to adverse incentives, suppliers will not be willing to share information regarding their costs. The situation is different when the information to be conveyed is regarding the expected delay or lead time. Whang shows that suppliers are better off disclosing lead-time information to buyers (when the demand curve for their product is convex). This result is consistent with our general thesis, whereas the former one introduces a note of caution: adverse incentives pose limits to the scope of information sharing among network organizations. In â€Å"From Vendors to Partners: Information Technology and Incomplete Contracts in Buyer-Supplier Relationships†, Bakos and Brynjolfsson start with the assumption that, in many cases, complete information exchange between two firms will be infeasible, so any contract between them will be â€Å"incomplete† in the sense that some contingencies will remain unspecified. They then explore how the interplay of IT and organizational structure can affect the role of non-contractible investments, such as innovation, quality and the exchange of information. For example, Bakos and Brynjolfsson show that when fewer suppliers are employed, they collectively capture a larger share of the benefits of the relationship, and this will increase their incentives to make non-contractible investments. As a result, even when search costs are very low, it may be desirable for the buyer to limit the number of employed suppliers, leading to a partnership-type of relationship, rather than aggressively bargaining for all the benefits by threatening to switch among numerous alternative suppliers. Like Whang, they show that the incentive effects of the applications of IT must be explicitly considered in any model  of their effect on inter-organizational cooperation. 4. Conclusion In this paper, we have stressed the joint determination of the location of information and decision rights. The default mechanism used to achieve this co-location depends on one’s point of reference. Information Systems researchers are likely to take the locus of decision authority for granted. They will typically focus their attention on devising schemes that will efficiently organize, retrieve, sort, filter, transmit and display information for designated decision makers. In contrast, the economist is likely to focus on the allocation of decision rights and the concomitant effect on incentives.6 As we discussed in Section 2, transferring information and transferring decision authority are two sides of the same question. Because economics and information systems research evolved to address different problems, this complementarity long went unnoticed. Each of the papers in the special issue addresses a different aspect of the interplay among information, incentives and the structure of economic enterprise. In every case, insights resulted when both information and incentives were explicitly considered. Each paper contributes an additional piece to an emerging mosaic that describes not only the features of the new organization, but also gives some insight into their theoretical underpinnings. The papers in this special issue also highlight the incomplete state of knowledge in the subject area and the dearth of empirical guidance to the formulation and testing of theoretical research. We started this paper with a discussion of the computer industry as the canonical example of the new paradigm as exercised in Silicon Valley, and continued by arguing that its products actually fuel the shift to this paradigm. It is only appropriate to close the loop by examining the dictum of that paradigm as it applies to the inner workings of firms in the computer industry. A major effort along these lines in being undertaken by one of the authors and his colleagues in Stanford University’s Computer Industry Project. Understanding these changes so that they can be harnessed for productive ends remains a central challenge for the next decade of research. The rapid progress in designing computers and communications systems contrasts starkly with the uncertainty clouding organizational design. Yet, new ways of organizing will be necessary before the potential of IT can be realized. Furthermore, because the new organizational paradigms involve numerous complementarities, the trial-and-error methods which were important in the rise of the organizational forms of the past century, such as large hierarchies and mass markets, may be unsuited for making the next transition. Understanding and implementing one aspect of a new organizational structure without regard to its interaction with other aspects can leave the make the organization worse off than if no modifications at all were made. Design, rather than evolution, is called for when significant changes must be made along multiple dimensions simultaneously. Successful organizational design, in turn, requires that we understand the flow of information among humans and their agents every bit as well as we understand the flow of electrons in chips and wires. Perhaps, then, the revolution in information processing capabilities not only calls for a change in business organization, but also a re-evaluation of the historic separation between Information Systems and Economics. REFERENCES [1] Meyers, G. The Science of Management. In C. B. Thompson (Eds.), Scientific Management Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1914. [2] Kanter, R. M. â€Å"The New Managerial Work.† Harvard Business Review, Nov-Dec, 1989, pp. 85-92. [3] Peters, T. Thriving on Chaos, Handbook for a Management Revolution. New York: Knopf, 1988. [4] Milgrom, P. and Roberts, J. â€Å"The Economics of Modern Manufacturing: Technology, Strategy, and Organization.† American Economic Review, Vol. 80, No. 3, 1990. [5] Jaikumar, R. â€Å"Post-Industrial Manufacturing.† Harvard Business Review, November-December, 1986, pp. 69-76. [6] Brynjolfsson, E. Information Technology and the ‘New Managerial Work’. Working Paper # 3563-93. MIT, 1990. [7] Galbraith, J. Organizational Design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1977. [8] Hayek, F. A. â€Å"The Use of Knowledge in Society.† American Economic Review, Vol. 35, No. 4, 1945. [9] Miller, W. F. The Economy of Choice. In Strategy, Technology and American Industry HBS Press, 1987. [10] Jensen, M. and Meckling, W. Knowledge, Control and Organizational Structure Parts I and II. In Lars, Werin and Hijkander (Eds.), Contract Economics (pp.251-274). Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1992. [11] Mendelson, H. On Centralization and Decentralization. Stanford, forthcoming, 1993. [12] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. An Integrated Computerized Trading System. In Market Making and the Changing Structure of the Securities Industry (pp. 217-235). Lexington Heath, 1985. [13] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. (1989). The Effects of Computer-Based Trading on Volatility and Liquidity. In H. C. Lucas Jr. and R. A. Schwartz (Eds.), The Challenge of Information Technology for the Securities Markets. (pp. 59-85). Dow Jones-Irwin. [14] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. â€Å"Liquidity, Volatility and Exchange Automation.† Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance, Vol. 3, Fall, 1988, pp. 369-395. [15] Malone, T. W., Yates, J. and Benjamin, R. I. â€Å"Electronic Markets and Electronic Hierarchies.† Communications of the ACM, Vol. 30, No. 6, 1987, pp. 484-497. [16] Baker, G. P. â€Å"Incentive Contracts and Performance Measurement.† Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 100, No. 3, June, 1992. [17] Brynjolfsson, E. â€Å"An Incomplete Contracts Theory of Information, Technology, and Organization.† Management Science, forthcoming, 1993.

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The Day That Changed America essays September 11th Two thousand one. Lives were lost, freedom was challenged, and two symbols of liberty were left in ruins. On this very quiet morning of this horrible day, the United States of America was caught off guard. This was the day that changed us all forever. This caused millions of Americans to stop and realize that we were not invincible like we had been trained to think. This was the very day that I realized that there are more important things than what I want. When I first heard that this had happened, I was eating lunch outside. It was my friend that had told me what had happened. And of course not realizing the situation... I went on with lunch laughing and telling jokes as usual. It was little after that I was in for a pretty awful surprise. When I walked into my third period class, I had seen the pentagon burning on one half of the T.V screen and the World Trade Centers which had fallen by this point, in ruins. My stomach had turned inside our and I had a very awful feeling. By fourth period, I was very scared about what else these dirty, evil people were capable of, and being so close to White Sands Missile Range, and knowing that my dad was a State Police officer, I knew that if something ever happened like that, he would be one of the first ones there because thats the kind of man he is. And with that in my head I felt nothing but worry and sorrow for the children whose fathers were lost trying to save others. Till this very day, I still have very deep feelings for those people and I really do wish them the best in life. I could imagine what they have been through but I do know how it feels when your freedom is challenged. And I hope I never have to feel it again. Everybody who put their life on the line that day is considered a hero in my heart and I ...

Orientalism. Franois Bernier and Kaempfers Manuscripts Essay

Orientalism. Franois Bernier and Kaempfers Manuscripts - Essay Example This was extensively practiced by the imperialistic European scholars and it paved the way for an entirely new discipline of study called "Orientalism". Orientalism is the study of near and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages, and peoples by Western scholars. It also refers to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West. When used in a neutrally descriptive sense, "Orientalism" describes a development in the history of ideas that was shaped by the attitudes of the era of European imperialism in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. But, the term when it is interpreted antagonistically, it implies trivializing, dismissive and prejudiced interpretations by Westerners of Eastern cultures and peoples. Thehistoryandcultural influence of these "Oriental books" can be felt consistently. Writers who explored various facets of the countries cultures revealed only those in consistency with their culture and despised the other facets of the target countries culture. The traveler's manuscripts were beneficial in a number of ways, for example the traveler's records have paved the way to improve the trade relations between the east and the west. Also we learn ancient secrets from their books. From their rich experience the travelers provide a huge amount of information which is useful at many times and confusing at times. Sometimes works by some intellectuals are merely baseless, thanks to their very little knowledge about other intimates and ethos of the country they describe and so they end up with some records which are just entirely misleading. Let us evaluate the various pros and cons of these travelers's account. Kaempfer's manuscripts: At Kaempfer's death his mostly unpublished manuscripts were purchased by Sir Hans Sloane, and conveyed to England. Among them was a History of Japan, translated from the manuscript into English by J.G. Scheuchzer and published at London, in 2 Vols. in 1727. In this manuscript he gives a good account about Japanese and their culture. In first hand, he describes the highways of Japan. Kaempfer has provided a map about ancient Japan paving way for various explorers in the later years. Kaempfer says "An incredible number of people daily use the highways of Japan's provinces, indeed, at certain times of the year they are as crowded as the streets of a populous European city." He also gives a good account of Japanese Shrines and 33 important temples. Further, he gives a good account about the Japanese warlords richness and their might. Besides Japanese history, this book contains a description of the political, social and physical state of the country in the 17th century. For upwards of a hundred years it remained the chief source of information for the general reader, and is still not wholly obsolete. But his description about the pilgrims as 'Beggars', clearly portrays author's ignorance about the Japanese tradition. Pilgrimages to Ise have been popular for centuries and seven visits was said to ensure salvation. Even in the secular Japan of today, Ise holds a place equivalent to Mecca or Jerusalem for many Japanese. It is their holy duty to walk to the shrine barefooted. They renounce their earthly wealth before starting on the pilgrim and depend on the alms for their living in their travel. Further, his categorizing of 'Beggars' as 'Kannons', silent, common and his description about the prostitutes clearly depicts his imperialistic goals. He tries his best to establish the superiority of the West over the East. In this contest he even criticizes the work of moderate Oriental writer like Francois Caron. Further, his ridiculous description

Companies Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Companies Act - Essay Example The Memorandum constitutes the company's charter with the outsiders dealing with the company and usually contains a number of statutory classes. The Articles of Association on the other hand are the regulations governing the internal management of the company. Section 7 of the Companies Act 1985 has given the option to the companies limited by shares to adopt Table A instead of filing separate Articles. It is established law that where there is a conflict between the Memorandum and Articles of Association the Memorandum prevails. Section 14 (1) of the Companies Act 1985 has given the character of a statutory contract for the Memorandum and Articles of Association of a Company. These documents have given rise to a contract between the company and the members of the company and among the members themselves. Thus the right of a company to make the calls on unpaid shares can be enforced by the company by means of the Articles. In the same way by using the Articles the member can enforce the entitlement for voting rights against the company and the pre-emption rights on a sale of his shares against another member can also be enforced through the Articles. This character of the Memorandum and Articles of Association is usually referred to as the Statutory Contract or Section 14 contract. The character of the Memorandum and Articles as a statutory contract wa... provided in the Articles of Association of the company that Eley will be the solicitor of the company to transact all legal business of the company and shall not be removed from the office except for misconduct. Subsequently Eley became the shareholder of the company. When the company started taking advice from another counsel, Eley brought an action for breach of contract under the Articles. His claim was dismissed on the ground that the Articles represent a contract between the members and the company or between the members themselves. It was held, as a solicitor Eley cannot enforce the contract under the Articles and the decision was upheld in the appeal. The position would have been different had Eley brought the action in his capacity as a member. But in the whole case the capacity of Eley was never brought into consideration and no ruling was given in that respect. "The Eley decision is quoted in most legal reference books as authority for the proposition that articles can only give rights to a member in his capacity as a member." Michael Grffiths2 As observed by Lord Cairns LC in this case the Articles represent either a stipulation to the members or it provides instructions to the directors for the conduct of the business of the company. In either of the cases the Articles represent a document to be considered as specifying the contractual relationship between the company and its members and directors and there is no place for an outsider to intervene in the operations of the Articles. 3.0 Enforcement of the Rights by a Non-member of the Company: In the case of Hickman v. Kent or Romney Marsh Sheep-Breeders' Association3 the rights of the members under the Articles of Association were more clearly established. The judge in this case observed 'that no right